Friday, September 6, 2019
Scope of nursing Essay Example for Free
Scope of nursing Essay Expanding o r E panding your Scope of N rsing Nursing Practice – a practical g p guide Leanne Boase Deborah Pedron The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Scope of Nursing and p g Midwifery Practice What is it? Why Wh is it so important? Why is everyone y y talking about it? Who manages it? Who is responsible? The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Aims of this Presentation 1. To define what Scope of Practice means for Nurses and Midwives Midwives. 2. To present different concepts around Scope of p p p Practice 3. T 3 To report on findings of a small survey of t fi di f ll f nurses and Scope of Practice 4. To discuss expanding Scope of Practice and provide a framework 5. To relate these concepts to ‘real life’ nursing roles. o es. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre According to our nurses, Scope Of Practice P ti (SOP) is: i SO SOP is Guidelines G and Frameworks we need to abide and work within SOP relates to what I am allowed and not allowed to do within my profession SOP relates to codes of conduct, ethics and professional conduct SOP relates to what a nurse can do within their skill base Area of tasks, procedures and actions a nurse can legally and safely undertake according to their training and education The scope of which p my role as a RN, specialist or credentialed DNE can work within Maintaining knowledge base and competency through constant learning and professional development The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Something which I am taught, qualified, taught qualified or competent to do Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre What is Scope of Practice? p â€Å"That which Nurses and â€Å"the range of roles, functions, functions responsibilities activities, which a registered nurse or a registered midwife is educated, competent, and has the authority to perform †perform. (An Bord Altranais p1) Midwives are educated, competent and authorised to perform. †(QNC p3) Scope of p p practice is not defined in many places. We should define nursing practice and outline principles to assist with the expansion of one’s scope p p of practice And/ Or Require the health professional to identify restricted activities. ( (DEST) ) The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service â€Å"What health care workers actually do in the course of their employment which encompasses the full range of nursing activities. †An individuals scope refers to â€Å"the activities which that nurse is educated and authorised to perform. †(NSWNA p1) â€Å"A professions scope of practice is the full spectrum of roles, functions, responsibilities, activities and decision-making capacity which i di id l within th profession are it hi h individuals ithi the f i educated, competent and authorised to perform†. â€Å"The scope of practice of an individual nurse or midwife may be more specifically defined than the scope of practice of their profession. †ti f th i f i †(ANMC 2007 p2;23) Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre What is Scope of Practice? p †¢ Our definition: Full range of activities that we (nurses and midwives) have been educated, deemed competent, and are authorised to do. It is t t d th i d t d i not just a list of activities and j tasks, or a role description. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre What Evidence supports your SOP? †¢ From our nurses: – Continuing Professional Development (CPD) – Number of hours per week working – Certificates registration Certificates, – Reflection – Document everything y g †¢ From the literature: – Maintaining records of:  » Reviewing journal articles  » In service education In-service  » Conferences  » Informal or formal discussions  » Accredited educational programs The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Who determines Scope Of Practice? p Is it the clinician the employer, the profession, the clinician, employer profession client, the registering body, the area of practice or specialty, the legislation, codes of conduct IT IS ALL OF THESE!! The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Who determines Scope Of Practice? p From the literature, there are several common themes: The primary determinant of scope of practice for all nurses and midwives is the enhancement of outcomes d id i i th h t f t for patients, and meeting consumer needs. Nurses and Midwives are responsible for their own decisions around scope of practice There are many factors that influence and contribute to scope of practice (Nurses Board Western Australia, Nurses Board of Victoria, Australian Nursing Federation, Ohio Nurses Board, Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council) The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Who determines Scope Of Practice? p Employers, Employers Organisations ; their Policies Patient ; Consumer Needs ; Outcomes O t Professional Bodies SOP Individual Scope of Practice Nurse Or Midwife – You! Regulatory Authorities The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Law Craigieburn Health Service Professional P f i l Scope of Practice Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Why do we need to expand SOP? Nursing d Mid if N i and Midwifery experience and knowledge are i dk l d invaluable resources. It is natural for a Nurse or Midwife to evolve from being a novice, to an expert, and even further towards expanding their scope of p p g p practice, as they y continually learn and adapt to the needs of their clients Again, i A i primarily, expanding scope of practice must il di f ti t be driven by the need to provide improved outcomes and meet the needs of consumers. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Why do we need to expand SOP? The Health Care Landscape is changing! y Think about the shift to community based and outpatient care, higher acuity patients, technological advances, etc. advances etc The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Why do we need to expand SOP? Nursing and Midwifery evolves along with the i d id if l l ih h health care sector. Nurses and Midwives are: †¢ Participating more and more in evaluation, g patient care assessment and decision making in p †¢ Professional – educated, competent, authorised and registered †¢ Participating in the growth and evolution th d l ti of health care The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Expanding Scope of Practice p g p †¢ How our nurses and midwives have d id i h maintained/expanded theirs: – Conferences/workshops/courses – Self-directed learning i. e. research on-line, journal g ,j reading – In-service education †¢ How they plan to expand in the future: – As above – Presenting in-services in area of expertise The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Expanding Scope of Practice p g p The key concepts for Expanding Scope of Practice found in the literature include: 1. The primary motivation of any expansion to scope of practice is to meet needs of the client or improve outcomes and access 2. The competency or task must be well defined and understood 3. Any expansion must enhance the existing aspects of professional practice 4. The expansion to scope is lawful, appropriate for the context, consistent with relevant standards, acceptable to the profession, consistent with the relevant profession organisations’ policies and consultation and planning has occurred. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Expanding Scope of Practice p g p Key concepts of Expanding Scope of Practice – continued: 5. The registered nurse/midwife expanding their practice is already practising at an advanced level and has the education p p , p p and competence to perform the task, and is prepared to be accountable. They have been assessed by a competent health professional. 6. Nurses and midwives are accountable for making professional 6 N d id i t bl f ki f i l judgements when an activity is beyond their capacity and to initiate consultation/referral 7. Nursing and midwifery decisions are best made in a collaborative context, with ongoing risk assessment, planning, planning evaluation and support Always discuss expanding your scope with your peers, employers, professional organisations and your registering body. d i i b d The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Expanding Scope of Practice p g p There should be no artificial barriers to Scope Of Practice or expanding SOP such as: †¢ Ambiguous or inconsistent policy †¢ Overly specific or restrictive policy †¢ Inconsistent guidelines and frameworks eg. differences between States and regions †¢ Turf wars or uninformed attitudes The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Expanding Scope of Practice p g p When developing policy and planning for expansion consider: †¢ Permissive versus restrictive approaches – do you want to specifically restrict practice, or allow expansion to proceed within the broader guidelines? †¢ Profession versus client focussed approaches – it is best to be responsive to the needs of the client – ‘nurses will do what nurses needs to be done, providing he or she is competent to do it’. †¢ Competency standards should recognise the characteristics of nursing as well as the broader attributes or potential and i ll h b d ib i l d evolving roles. †¢ Overarching or broad statements are more effective than detailed or overly-specific statements when defining or expanding scope of practice. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre SOP Expansion Framework Self-inquiry Define the task or activity you wish to add to your role, then ask: Is it legal? No STOP No Yes STOP Am I covered by Hospital Policy? Yes Yes Am I competent? Do I have relevant knowledge and confidence? Yes Am I willing to accept . accountability? Yes PROCEED The Northern Hospital Do you need to develop policy in line with the evidence base? Will this improves outcomes for the patient/consumer and will it improve access to services? Panch Health Service No STOP No STOP Can you access relevant education, education are you willing? NO STOP Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Key Take Home Messages y g †¢ This is relevant to all nurses and midwives. †¢ Not one single factor determines Scope Of Practice. †¢ Scope o p act ce should be shaped to benefit the of practice s ou d s aped be e t t e patient, and improve outcomes, as should any expansions to SOP. †¢ Governance of SOP is complex, but is essentially the responsibility of the nurse or midwife . †¢ Use this frame ork and information in conj nction framework conjunction with NMBA/AHPRA guidelines, relevant State or Federal Legislation, and your g , y employing organisation and it’s policies. The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre Questions The Northern Hospital Panch Health Service Craigieburn Health Service Broadmeadows Health Service Bundoora Extended Care Centre
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Moral Reconciliation Essay Example for Free
Moral Reconciliation Essay From the beginning of the story to the end, Huckleberry Finn’s morals change rather dramatically and the novel focuses largely on this. Forced to reconcile his personal feelings of friendship for an escaped slave (Jim) with what society has told him is right, Huck learns through the course of the story to trust his moral instincts. As the story progresses, we see Huck’s character develop strong morals that eventually lead to his reconciliation. Early in the book, Huck is shown to have a low level of maturity and is very naà ¯ve. He relies more on the opinions of others more so than his own. Huck seems to know the rightful place of a slave, especially growing up in the American South. But this changes, in time, when he meets a runaway slave named Jim on Jackson Island. Huck knows he is defying society by not turning Jim in, but he continues to stay by Jim’s side and feels he can’t betray him as their friendship grows. This is an internal moral struggle for Huck, because he knows to society he is â€Å"wrong,†but to him their friendship made it â€Å"right.†While floating down the Mississippi, Huck and Jim come across a shipwreck. Huck, being the young, curious boy he is wants to explore it. Jim on the other hand is very reluctant to do so, but he feels obliged to follow Huck along anyways because he is a slave and Huck is white. On the wreck the two find a gang of robbers and a tied up man, they decide to leave immediately at this site. Huck and Jim then steal the robbers boat, but Huck feels a little guilty for doing this. So he makes up a story to a ferryboat watchman that his family was on the wreck and they needed help. The watchman showed up on the site just to discover that it sank, and the robbers most likely dead. Compassion is a key part in developing good morality and at this point Huck’s morality is slowly taking shape because he feels compassion for others. During a terrible storm, Huck and Jim are separated. Jim searches for Huck, but he cannot pinpoint him, so he goes to sleep. Huck eventually arrives on the raft to find Jim sleeping. Once Jim woke up Huck told him that the whole storm fiasco was just an elaborate dream he had, but Jim soon discovers he is lying and becomes upset. Seeing this, Huck felt guilty for hurting Jim’s feelings and apologizes. This is a pivotal point in the novel because Huck realizes that he has feelings for this slave. Once again he knows society would see this as â€Å"wrong†and just plain crazy. Huck is having another internal conflict, but feels that his friendship with Jim is morally â€Å"right†contrary to what society would think. Huck’s moral dilemmas are rooted in conflicting systems of morality: that of his upbringing and that of his own natural feelings of friendship for Jim. â€Å"I was paddling off, all in a sweat to tell on him; but when he says this, it seemed to kind of take the tuck all out of me. I went along slow then, and I warnt right down certain whether I was glad I started or whether I warnt. When I was fifty yards off, Jim says: Dah you goes, de ole true Huck; de ony white genlman dat ever kep his promise to ole Jim. Well, I just felt sick. But I says, I GOT to do it – I cant get OUT of it. Right then along comes a skiff with two men in it with guns, and they stopped and I stopped.†This a good example of Huck’s moral conflictions. At the climax of the novel, Huck as an epiphany. When Jim gets turned in by the conmen (the Duke and the King), Huck is devastated. Confused at what to do, Huck writes a letter that is intended for Ms. Watson, the letter reads: Miss Watson, your runaway nigger Jim is down here two mile below Pikesville, and Mr. Phelps has got him and he will give him up for the reward if you send. Huck Finn. After wrestling with his morals and consciousness, Huck makes his most important moral decision yet, when he states: All right, then, Ill GO to hell – and tore it up. He ultimately helped Jim escape. In the end, Huck acted on the highest level of morality regardless of society’s laws and ideas. Early in the story Huck displayed childish traits and a skewed morality because of how he grew up. But Huck changed entirely in his time spent with Jim. When life was forced upon Huck he had to develop and â€Å"grow up†rather fast. He quickly progressed from a naà ¯ve boy to a mature morally correct young man. Most humans strive for the betterment of themselves and society as a whole, and this is what makes Huck’s final reconciliation so compelling.
Voiced And Voiceless Sounds Of English English Language Essay
Voiced And Voiceless Sounds Of English English Language Essay There are 26 letters in the English alphabet, but there are 39 sounds (15 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds) prooduced by these letters. A vowel is a sound where air coming from the lungs is not bloecked by the mouth or throat. All normal English words contain at least one vowel.        The vowels are:        A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y.          Y can also behave as aa consonant when it is at the beginning of a word. A consonant is a sound formed by stopping the air flowing through the mouth.        The consonants are:        B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z Alll the sounds produced in the English are either voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds occur when the vocal cords vibrate when the sound is produced. There is no vocal cord vibration when producing voiceless sounds. To test thise, place your finger tips hand on your throat as you say the sounds. When saying the voiced sounds, you should be able to feel a vibration. When saying the voiceless sounds you sound not be able to feel a vibration. Sometimes it is very difficult to feel the difference between a voiced and voiceless sound. Another test may help. Put a piece of paper in front of your mouth when saying the sounds- the paper will should move when saying the unvoiced sounds. All vowels in English are voiced. Some of the consonant sounds are voiced and some are voiceless. Some of the consonanat sounds produced in English are very similar. Many times the difference between them is because one is voiced and the other is voiceless. Two examples are z, which is voiced and s, which is voiceless. See the chart below for a listing of the voiced and voicelless consonants.            Voiced consonants           Voiceless consonant          Sounds                                 Sounds             b                                              p             d                                              t             g                                              k             v                                              f             z                                              s             th                                            th             sz                                            sh             j                                               ch             l                                                h             m             n             ng             r             w             y any consonant sounds come in pairs. For example, P and B are produced in the same place in the mouth with the tongue in the same position. The only difference is that P is an unvoiceds sound (no vibration of the vocal cords) while B is a voiced sound (vocal cords vibrate). Put your hand on your throat as you say the pairs below to feel the difference. Note tht the first pair of consonants in the table (p, b) is produced at the front of the mouth. Each pair shifts further back with the last pair (k, g) being produced at the back of the mouth. The following consonant sounds are represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA). The words in parentheses represent phonetic transcriptions. we can clearly distinguish (b, d, g) from (p, t, k) spoken by native US/UK English speakers. People can clearly distinguish my (b, d, g) from (p, t, k) too. the only perceivable difference between the two groups is that a puff of air comes out when we say (p, t, k). Certain pairs of consonants can be problematic for some learners. In some cases, the main difference between the pair is whether the consonant is voiced or unvoiced, that is, whether or not the vocal chords vibrate when making this sound. This discovery activity can be used to help learners notice the difference between voiced and unvoiced consonants. Begin by asking learners what noise a bee makes. As they make a buzzing noise, do the same and purt your fingers on your throat, indicating that they should do likeewise. This will allow them to feel the vibrations of the vocal chords that occur with voiced consonant sounds. Ask them if they can feel the vibrations. Then focus on a voiced / unvoiced pair such as s and z. Make the sounds with your fingers on your throaet, indicating that the learners should do the same. You can help learners with this by getting them to make the bee sounds for z, and the sound a snake is supposed to make for s. Ask them when they feel the vocal chords vibrate with s or z? (The answer should be z). Tell them that this is the main difference between the two sounds, and that z is voiced while s is unvoiced. You could then give them a list of words and ask them to categorise the underlined consonant sound into these two categories. With /s/ and /z/, you might choose to include some third person singular verb and plural endings. Inn this list the sound being focused on is the final sound in each case. /s/ /z/ cupss pens speaks reads gets goes puts lives tents cars plants sees baggs hears looks learns stops rise rice rose place plays Learners then use the chart to deside which of the other consonant sounds are voiced and which are unvoiced. In a computer lab, learners could do this in pairs. They listen to a sound and repeat it, with their fingers on their throat to check ifz it is voiced or unvoiced. In class with the IWB, or a computer and a projector, the teacher or a learner could click on sounds while the rest of the class repeat them and categorize them into voiced or unvoiced. As a follow up, you could do a minimal pairs activity using some voiced / unvoiced pairs, focusing on initial consonannt sounds. Display this list or something similar on the board and say a word from each pair. After each word learners have to say voiced or unvoiced, depending on which of the pair they hear. They can then test each other in pairs. Voiced Unvoiced Ben pen do to gone con van fan gin chin zoo Sue This activity has the advantage of establishing the voiced / unvoiced distinction, and a shared gesture that learners and the teacher can use in class to indicate that a sound is voiced or unvoiced, i.e. the fingers on the throat. It also helps learners to become conscious of the muscle movements involved in voicing a consonant. All of this will be useful in future classes if problem arise in the discrimination or production of voiced / unvoiced consonant pairs. what is Voiced? A simple explanation of voiced consonants is that they use the voice. This is easy to test by putting your finger on your throat. If you feel a vibration the consonant is voiced. Here is a list of some voiced consonants. Pronounce each consonant sound (not the letter) and feel the vibration of your vocal chords. b d th (as in then) v l r z j (as in Jane) What is Voiceless? Voiceless consonants do not use the voice. They are percussive and use hard sounds. Once again, you can test if a consonant is voiceless by putting your finger on your throats. You will feel no vibration in your throat, just a short explosion of air as you pronounce. Pronounce each of these consonant sounds and feel NO vibration in your throat. p t k s sh ch th (as in thing) Careful! Some Consonants Voiced, but are Voiceless When consonants are put in groups they can change the voiced or voiceless quality of the consonant that follows. A great example of this is the past simple form of regular verbs. As you know, regular verbs add -ed to the end of the verb in the past simple. play played wash washed live lived etc. These past simple verbs all end in -ed. However, some of the verbs are pronounced with a voiceless t sound and some are pronounced with the voiced d sound. Why? Here are the rules: If -ed is preceded by a voiceless consonant sound (p, k, sh, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiceless t. Remember that the e is silent. If -ed is preceded by a voiced consonant sound (d, b, v, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiced d. Remember that the e is silent. If -ed is preceded by a vowel sound (often ay) -ed sounds as a voiced d because vowels are always voiced. Remember that the e is silent. Exception: If -ed is preceded by t pronounce a voiced -id. In this case, the e is pronounced. This pattern can also be found with plural forms. If the consonant preceding the s is voiced, s will sound as voiced z: chairs machines bags If the consonant preceding the s is voiceless, s will sound as voiceless s: bats parks pipes Connected Speech Finally, when speaking in sentences the ending consonant sounds can change based on the following words. This is often referred to as connected speech. Here is an example of a change from a voiced b in the word club to a voiceless p because of the voiced t of to of the following word: We went to the club to meet some friends. Here is an example of a change from a voiced d past simple verb changed to voiceless t: We played tennis yesterday afternoon. All sounds in the English language have a sound associated with it. The voiced noise that you hear if you say sounds individually, originates from the vibration of the vocal cords and the way in which you shape your tongue and lips and palate to create the consonant. When you use your vocal cords to make a consonant, you are producing a voiced consonant or vowel. But there are a handful of voiceless consonants that are produced without vibrating the vocal cords at all. The noise that you hear, originates somewhere in the mouth or at the lips. It is easier to memorize which consonants are voiceless since there are fewer of them-only nine: /p, t, k, s, sh, ch, h, f, th/ Try to make each of these sounds individually. You should not be voicing at all. The /p/ sound will have its noise made at the lips. The /t/ is made by placing the tongue behind the upper teeth and pushing/stopping air rapidly. The /k/ is made in the back of the throat with the tongue pushing against the palate. Of these sounds (except for /h/) there are partner sounds or minimal pairs that are made exactly the same except voicing is added. Compare the following pairs of sounds: /p/ vs. /b/ /t/ vs. /d/ /k/ vs. /g/ To feel vibration, place your fingers on your larynx, the bony structure of the front part of your neck, and say, ah. Do you feel some vibration? Now make the first sound in each of the above pairs. Again, place your fingers on your larynx. You should not feel vibration. If you feel vibration you are not pronouncing the sound correctly. Only the second sound in each pair should have a vocal cord vibration. When sounds that are voiced are produced without voice, word meaning changes drastically. For example, pill sounds like bill, tan sounds like Dan, Kate sounds like gate. Miscommunications are inevitable! Why is this important? You will need to understand the voicing aspect of final consonants on words to help you understand past tense endings and plurals endings. A voiced sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate, and a voiceless sound is one in which they do not. Voicing is the difference between pairs of sounds such as [s] and [z] in English. If one places the fingers on the voice box (ie the location of the Adams apple in the upper throat), one can feel a vibration when one pronounces zzzz, but not when one pronounces ssss. (For a more detailed, technical explanation, see modal voice and phonation.) In European languages such as English, vowels and other sonorants (consonants such as m, n, l, and r) are modally voiced. In most European languages, other consonants contrast between voiced and unvoiced sounds such as [s] and [z], though in English many of these are at least partially devoiced in most environments.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
The Concept of Mentorship Essay -- Health Care, Nursing
In the following assignment the author will critically explore, discuss, reflect upon and evaluate mentorship within clinical nursing placements. With particular reference to learning disabilities and respite care, the author will look at the needs and benefits of mentorship, as well as the problems and constraints, especially being in such a specialised service. The author will explore the area of orientation, looking at why it is such an important aspect of the whole placement area. Once these aspects have been explored, the author will go on to discuss the placement, the problems that have been encountered throughout and the ways in which these can be addressed effectively, to ensure that they are reduced and expelled as much as possible. Any names and places used throughout the assignment have been changed to ensure anonymity and maintain confidentiality at all times, adhering to data protection. The concept of mentorship was originally introduced in the 1970s in America. It was fully embraced and bought over to the UK as a formal support system in the late 1980s (Learning Disability Practice, 2006, 9, 3, 16-18). At that time, nursing was predominately carried out by females. It was these females that identified the lack of, and need of a formal support system within the profession. The role of mentorship has been explored by many authors and theorists since the introduction of it into the nursing profession. In 1982, Zwolski stated that 'mentorship is seen as a broader, longer term relationship, aimed at guiding the student towards an established place in the profession'. This was later backed up by Armitage and Burnard in 1991, arguing that 'a deeper understanding of the role and functions associated with a ... ...iable. (www.NursingTimes.net 2008) Under the NMC guidelines, standards to support learning and assessment (2006), all nurses must mentor at least 2 students every 3 years. However not all nurses have acquired the knowledge, skills and attributes required to be an effective mentor. (NMC 2006). The Royal College of Nursing (RCN) discovered that the main reason for a student to have an inadequate placement is the lack of access to mentors, due to sickness, annual leave or other reasons. This consequently leads to a lack of consistency when setting goals, reviewing progress and assessing learning objectives at the final interview (RCN). Other reasons include short staffing – leading to overstretched staff not having time for students, being left to learn for themselves, thus meaning students aren't given the opportunities to learn and expand upon their experiences.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Acid Rain :: Free Essay Writer
The Damaging Effects of Acid Rain Modern society is becoming overwhelmed with great amounts of pollution from cars, factories and an overabundance of garbage. The immense amounts of sulphur dioxide emitted into the air causes high levels of acid in the atmosphere. When this sulphuric acid is absorbed into moisture in the air, poignant rainfalls can be damaging to the external environment. Acid rain is destroying the world=s lakes, air and ecosystem. Acid rain is killing lakes and decreasing the number of inhabitants in these fresh water bodies. Acid rain causes an ample deduction in the pH levels in the water. At a neutral level the pH in water should be close to seven, yet in these acidic water bodies the pH levels can be as low as four. These pH levels of four contain more than ten percent acids than that of normal rain and one thousand times more acid than neutral water. Each decade the pH levels of lakes around Ontario have become ten times more acidic. The high acid levels cont ained in lakes also causes a decrease in the number of fish dwelling in these lakes. Also Aacid produces chemical changes in the blood of the fish, and their basic body metabolism is altered@ (Howard & Perley, 1980, p. 24), and can cause deformities in these inhabitants. They have twisted and arched backbones, flattened heads and strangely curved tails. In pH levels of four there is little left in the lakes besides rock bass, pumpkinseed and lake herring. Affected fish are also in danger of becoming sterile, which would put the species at risk of becoming extinct. As with sulphur dioxide in rain, mercury is also discharged into the water. There is a direct connection between the mercury rich lakes as there is with those with high acidic levels. This metal becomes concentrated in the blood and tissues of fish. Acid rain causes traumatic effects in natural lakes and rivers. Acid rain causes air quality to deteriorate. As in water, acid rain causes the pH levels in the air to decrease. The sulphur dioxide, which diffuses into the air, mixes with moisture causing the pH levels to drop from the normal level. Again, the normal level is somewhere around seven, yet in some acidic air masses the levels can be as low as three. These lowered pH levels form a photochemical smog in the atmosphere.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Military Downsizing
Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER What Options Might the Pentagon Consider When Discussing the Downsizing of the Services as Well as Change Overseas Basing Richard Giadone Columbia Southern University MBA 5652 Research Methods Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER Permanently stationing forces overseas gives the U. S. military a strategic advantage–but at a price. That price is paid not only in terms of budgetary cost but in terms of the personnel, units, and equipment needed to support forces stationed outside the United States. We will compare the U. S. forces stationed in Europe and East Asia against the monetary and personnel cost of keeping them there. Forward Based Versus Forward Deployed Forces The U. S. forces can be maintained overseas on either temporary or a permanent basis. Units or personnel that are in a foreign country on a permanent basis are said to be forward based or forward stationed. In contrast, units and their associated personnel that are in a foreign country for a limited time, typically six months or a year, while taking part in exercises or operations are said to be forward deployed. An example of such forces is those now deployed in Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom. ) Although the distinction may appear to be minimal, it has important consequences for military forces and personnel. Forward Based Units Units that are permanently based outside the United States remain in place while individuals assigned to the units come and go. For example, the 2nd Infantry Division (2nd I D) has been stationed in South Korea since the 1950s, as a result of the Korean War armistice. While the division, with its headquarters and subordinate units, remain in place, some 13,000 Army soldiers rotate through it on one-year unaccompanied tours. The services are now allowing families to accompany service members to Korea for two Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER year tours. Korea has an 8% personnel turnover each month. And, 20% of all Soldiers on assignment to Korea never show. In other locations, such as Germany, U. S. military personnel serve three year tours with units stationed there and can bring their families with them. With the help of allies, the United States has built up large infrastructures overseas to support forward stationed units, assigned personnel, and their families. Almost all overseas bases that permanently house large numbers of U. S. service members include all of the amenities of bases in the United States, such as commissaries, chapels, exercise facilities, and post offices. In addition, in places where families may accompany service members, the Department of Defense (DoD) has established schools for military dependents. In Germany alone, DoD runs 70 schools for more than 30,000 children who are dependents of U. S. military personnel and DoD civilians. Another aspect of forward based units is that personnel serving with them are considered on permanent assignment instead of temporary duty and thus undergo a â€Å"permanent change of station†(PCS) when they move from an assignment in the United States to an assignment overseas. In a PCS move, service members can take along their household goods (including automobiles) at the government's (taxpayer’s) expense, regardless of whether they are accompanied by family members. The fact that personnel are assigned to, and move in and out of forward based units on an individual basis creates continual turnover in those units. With the three-year tours common in Germany, one-third of the individuals in a particular unit will turn over every Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER year and the entire population will turn over in three years. Moreover, when individuals complete a tour with a forward-based unit, they are generally assigned to a different unit in the United States than the one they served in before going overseas. Forward Deployed Units Forward deployed forces, such as those now in Afghanistan or Kosovo, are overseas on a temporary basis only. The United States does not anticipate having forces stationed in Iraq or Afghanistan for the next 50 years, as it has done in Germany. Rather, it anticipates that once Afghanistan is secure, U. S. troops will be withdrawn and not replaced. As a consequence, the United States has no plans to build elaborate bases to house U. S. forces in Afghanistan. Likewise, for the most part, military personnel are not assigned to duty in Afghanistan the same way they are to duty in South Korea or Germany. If a unit based in the United States, such as the 25th Infantry Division, is assigned to duty in Afghanistan for nine months to a year, all of the personnel associated with the division who are eligible will deploy to Afghanistan for the length of the tour. Neither soldiers' personal belongings (excluding some individual items) nor their families will accompany them. Furthermore, as much as possible, all of the individuals assigned to the unit will deploy and stay with it for the entire period and return to the home base together. Those deployed forces are often included in tallies of U. S. forces overseas, but in fact they are officially considered to be overseas on a temporary basis, even though some operations supported by rotational deployments have continued for years  Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER U. S. Forces Based in Europe The United States has about 100,000 military personnel forward based in Europe. The bulk of them are stationed in Germany, where the United States has maintained forces since the end of World War II, originally as an occupation force and later as part of NATO's defense during the Cold War. Although the size of U. S. forces in Europe declined by two thirds after the tearing down of the Berlin Wall, the need to maintain the current levels is being questioned by some defense analysts and Administration officials. Army Forces The Army accounts for about 60 percent of active duty U. S. personnel stationed in Europe. Despite significant cuts in those personnel after the unification of Germany and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the Army continues to base two of its 10 divisions and one of its four corps in Europe. Thus, a significant portion of the Army's combat power is stationed on that continent, primarily in Germany. Nevertheless, the Army's combat units (divisions and brigades) account for less than half of the service's active duty personnel in Europe. The 1st Armored Division and the 1st Infantry Division (mechanized) has only two of its three combat brigades and about 12,500 of its total 16,000 personnel based in Germany. The Army's other combat unit in Europe–the 173rd Airborne Brigade, based in Vicenza, Italy–has about 1,000 personnel assigned to it. Thus, the Army's permanent active-duty combat forces in Europe total about 26,000 people. Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER Another 27,000 or so active-duty personnel are assigned to what the Army calls combat-support (CS) units, such as artillery, and combat-service-support (CSS) units, such as transportation. CS and CSS units provide various kinds of support to combat brigades and divisions. The other 7,000 or so active-duty Army personnel based in Europe are assigned to what could be termed administrative units, such as medical facilities, NATO headquarters in Brussels, and contracting agencies. In all, about 43 percent of Army forces in Europe are assigned to combat units, 45 percent to support units, and 12 percent to administrative duties. (The breakdown for Army forces in Germany is similar: 45 percent combat, 45 percent support, and 10 percent administrative. ) Army Bases The Army maintains an extensive network of bases in Europe, encompassing almost 300 installations. Like its personnel, the vast majority of the Army's overseas infrastructure (255 installations) is in Germany. The largest and some of the most expensive Army bases in Europe are at Grafenwoehr and Hohenfels, Germany. Those two training facilities–which provide ranges and space where Army units can practice tactics and maneuvers–cover 52,000 acres and 40,000 acres, respectively, and have a combined replacement value of more than $1. 5 billion. (6) The Army also maintains 33 barracks for unaccompanied soldiers and 36 â€Å"villages†for family housing in Germany, which have a replacement value of roughly $14 billion. Other Army installations in Germany include five hospitals, five hotels, 15 smaller training areas, nine airfields, four Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER depots, three golf courses, a Boy Scout camp, and a Girl Scout camp. That infrastructure is designed to enhance soldiers' morale and, to some extent, replicate the facilities and conveniences that would be found around many Army bases in the United States. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps Forces and Bases The other three services have fewer forces stationed in Europe than the Army does. In addition, they have not concentrated their forces and bases on that continent in Germany to the extent that the Army has. The Air Force maintains the second largest presence in Europe after the Army, with 34,000 active-duty personnel and 201 installations in 12 countries. The largest contingent (15,000 active-duty personnel) is based in Germany, but the Air Force also has relatively large numbers of people in the United Kingdom (10,000) and Italy (4,000). The service's major combat units are distributed similarly, with Germany, the United Kingdom, and Italy each hosting one fighter wing. The greatest numbers of Air Force installations in Europe are located in Germany. The base at Ramstein, Germany, is the main air hub for U. S. forces from all services flying to or from other parts of the world, including the United States and the Middle East. The Air Force also has strategically important installations in the United Kingdom and Greenland. The air bases at Mildenhall and Lakenheath in the United Kingdom were used extensively to support U. S. operations against Libya and during Operations Desert Storm and Iraqi Freedom. The Air Force's facility in Thule, Greenland, includes radar Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER that is designed to provide early warning of an intercontinental ballistic missile attack and is expected to be part of the Bush Administration's network of missile defenses. Thus, although the Air Force does not have as many installations in Europe as the Army does, several of its bases have played–and continue to play–major roles in supporting U. S. military operations. The Navy and Marine Corps, because of the nature of their activities, have a far smaller onshore presence. Neither service bases any combat forces on shore in Europe, although the Navy has 10,000 support and administrative personnel there, nor the Marine Corps has 1,000. (7) In addition, the Navy maintains 15 installations in Europe, including two air stations (in Iceland and Italy). U. S. Forces Based in East Asia and the Pacific After Europe, the region with the largest permanent U. S. military presence overseas is East Asia and the Pacific, where approximately 80,000 personnel are stationed (see Table 2-1). Virtually all of them are based in two countries: Japan, where all four services have a significant presence, and South Korea, where the Army and the Air Force have stationed combat forces. In addition, the Navy and Air Force maintain a small number of installations (and fewer than 1,000 permanent personnel) in Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, and Singapore. Army Forces Since the Korean War, the Army has maintained a major presence in South Korea, where 28,000 Army personnel are now based. Their mission is to enforce the 1953 Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER cease-fire that ended hostilities under the auspices of the United Nations as well as to deter an attack by North Korea–or, should deterrence fail, help to repel an invasion or mount a counterattack to expel the invading force. Today, the 2nd ID is stationed in northern South Korea with two of its combat brigades, accounting for about 13,000 troops. The division's third brigade is based at Fort Lewis, Washington. ) Of the other 15,000 Army personnel in South Korea, about 13,000 are assigned to combat-support and combat-service-support units that are part of the Eighth Army, which serves as the high-level command organization for the Army in South Korea. The remaining 2,000 Army personnel in that country are assigned to units that perform administrative ta sks. The Army's representation elsewhere in the region is limited to Japan, where about 2,000 personnel are stationed. Those forces provide forward presence and support for regional contingencies and are also charged with helping to defend Japan if necessary. They include one special-forces battalion, some CS and CSS units, and several hundred soldiers assigned to administrative units. Army Bases The Army has a total of 95 installations in East Asia–80 in South Korea and the rest in Japan. The most expensive Army installation in the region is Yongsan Garrison, located in the center of Seoul. It is home to 7,000 military personnel assigned to the headquarters of U. S. Forces Korea and other command organizations and has a replacement value of $1. 3 billion. The Army's 15 installations in Japan, which support a Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER much smaller force, include a housing area, three ammunition depots, and other logistics facilities, such as a port, a pier, and a fuel-handling facility. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps Forces and Bases Although both the Navy and the Air Force have installations in several East Asian countries, their bases and forces are concentrated in Japan (see Appendix A for more details). On the basis of replacement value, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force installations in Japan represent 88 percent of the three services' investment in the region. Air Force. The Air Force has 23,000 airmen stationed in East Asia and the Pacific, with more than half of them based in Japan. Half of the personnel in Japan are assigned to support and administrative units, although 7,000 are associated with the tactical fighter units stationed there. In contrast, the majority of the 10,000 Air Force personnel stationed in South Korea are combat forces, associated with the two fighter wings based in that country. The Air Force maintains a total of 67 installations in Asia to support and house its forces. Japan hosts the majority of them (44) as well as several large or valuable installations, such as Kadena Air Base, the nearby Kadena Ammunition Storage Annex, and Misawa Air Base. Together, those three installations have a replacement value of $9 billion. Air Force installations in South Korea are not as extensive as those in Japan, but they include two large air bases: one at Kunsan on the western coast and one at Osan, less than 50 miles south of the North Korean border. Those two bases have a combined replacement value of about $3 billion. Navy. Since World War II, the Navy has had a significant presence and interest in East Asia. The base at Yokosuka, Japan–home to the Seventh Fleet and the aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk–is considered the Navy's largest and most strategically important overseas installation in the world. Furthermore, the Kitty Hawk's air wing, which is based in Japan when the carrier is in port, is the Navy's only forward-stationed air wing. All told, the Navy has about 6,000 personnel based on shore in Japan. To support its presence in Japan, the Navy maintains 12 installations, six of which are estimated to have a replacement value of more than $1 billion each. Its facilities at Yokosuka alone have a combined value of $5. 7 billion. The Navy also operates a base at Sasebo, which hosts an amphibious squadron, and a naval air facility at Atsugi. In all, the Navy's installations in Japan have an estimated replacement value of approximately $9 billion. Naval forces and installations in South Korea are much less extensive. Because the primary mission of U. S. Naval Forces Korea is to provide leadership and expertise in naval matters to area military commanders, there are no naval seagoing units permanently assigned to South Korea. Most of the Navy's facilities in South Korea are colocated with those of the Army at the Yongsan Garrison. Marine Corps. The Marine Corps's only division-sized unit stationed overseas–the III Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF)–has been based on the Japanese island of Okinawa since 1971. To support the 20,000 marines stationed in Japan, including the MEF's 17,000 personnel, the Marine Corps maintains two large installations: Camp Butler, which covers 78,500 acres (or about one-quarter) of Okinawa, and Iwakuni Air Station on the island of Honshu. Those two installations represent a total U. S. investment of $6. 5 billion. Concerns About the Current Basing of U. S. Forces Overseas Asserting that the current basing structure is incapable of meeting future U. S. needs, the Administration accelerated an ongoing strategic review of that structure. The goal of the review is to develop a plan for forward basing that will make U. S. forces more agile and better able to respond to an unpredictable and ever changing global geopolitical situation. Defense analysts outside the Administration have voiced similar criticisms of the military's current basing structure. Below are some of the concerns that have been raised from both inside and outside the Administration about the forward basing of U. S. forces. Issues Common to Various Services Some concerns apply, to varying degrees, to all four services and their bases outside the United States. Those concerns include frictions with host nations, the cost of maintaining forward bases, the ability of forces stationed overseas to respond to likely conflicts, and the enduring utility of U. S. installations overseas. Host Nation Conflicts. All of the services are subject to disputes with the governments of host nations and their citizens over land use and the proximity of U. S. forces to civilian population centers and activities. Conflicts about land use have arisen because U. S. bases that were originally in remote locations have become increasingly surrounded by suburban or urban development. An example is the land occupied by the U. S. Yongsan Garrison in what is now downtown Seoul, land that local South Koreans envision using for other purposes. I was stationed in Tongduchon Korea in 1998 and again in 2008. Within that 10 year timeframe remote U. S. training areas were turned into greenhouses and cities. In various places around the world, U. S. training exercises conducted near sizable local populations have disrupted the lives of residents because of noise, destroyed private property, and resulted in the loss of life through accidents. As U. S. military personnel come into closer proximity with spreading urban or suburban populations, such incidents could become more common and affect support for the continued presence of large U. S. forces on foreign soil. The Cost of Basing Forces Overseas Maintaining forward based forces entails a marginal cost, in part because installations overseas, particularly in Europe, are more expensive to operate and support than those in the United States. Additional marginal costs include the family separation pay given to military personnel on unaccompanied tours and the cost of moving active duty service members, their goods, and sometimes their dependents to and from assignments overseas. The Congressional Research Service estimated that the total annual cost of basing 100,000 U. S. forces from all services in Europe rather than the United States was on the order of $1 billion to $2 billion in 1996. The Ability of Forces Based Overseas to Respond to Likely Conflicts Administration officials have questioned whether U. S. orces that are stationed primarily in Germany and South Korea are positioned appropriately to respond to probable future conflicts. They argue that conflicts are much more likely to occur in Africa, Western Asia, or the Middle East than anywhere in Western Europe. Similarly, conflicts may occur in Asia at locations other than on the Korean Peninsula like the civil unrest that has occurred recently in Indonesia and t he Philippines. Although all of the services have personnel stationed in Germany and all but the Navy in South Korea, that concern is most relevant for the Army because of its oncentration of forces in those countries. Most of the Administration's public statements about altering the current basing of U. S. forces abroad appear to focus on Army units. The Utility of the Current Overseas Basing Structure Although Administration officials have questioned the usefulness of some of the military's existing overseas infrastructure, they have said that some bases have obvious enduring utility. For example, the Air Force's Ramstein and Osan air bases serve as major hubs in Germany and South Korea, respectively. Army and other personnel and some equipment pass through those facilities when they arrive from the United States or depart for other parts of the globe, such as the Middle East. Those large installations, in which the United States has invested heavily to expedite the movement of forces and equipment into and out of Europe and Asia, are of high strategic value, and the Administration has explicitly stated that it will retain them. The training areas at Grafenwoehr and Hohenfels, which provide facilities unavailable anywhere else in Europe, will also be retained. Issues Specific to the Army As noted above, various characteristics set the Army apart in terms of forward basing: it has far more personnel stationed overseas than any other service, those forces are located in places that appear to be legacies of the Cold War, and Army units require the most time and expense to be transported to conflicts away from where they are based. For those reasons, many concerns about the present U. S. basing structure focus on that service. Army Forces in Europe The main concern expressed by Administration officials about the Army forces now based in Europe seems to be the amount of time they would need to respond to a conflict in the region. Although the two Army divisions stationed in Germany were well placed to defend NATO from Soviet attack, they cannot deploy quickly to conflicts outside Germany. For example, three months elapsed between the decision to move the 1st Armored Division from Germany to Iraq in March 2003 and its arrival in that theater. Military and Administration officials have indicated that the need for U. S. intervention s much more likely in Africa, Eastern Europe, or Western Asia than in Western Europe. Statements by U. S. commanders in Europe suggest that the Administration may be assessing how to speed the deployment of U. S. forces to places such as Nigeria, Uganda, Azerbaijan, and Djibouti. (Nigeria and Baku, Azerbaijan, are sources of oil; Uganda and Djibouti are potential staging bases for conducting operations in Africa to counter instability and terrorism. ) As was the case with Iraq, moving a division, or even part of one, from Germany to any of those locations would take a considerable amount of time. The units in Germany are heavy divisions equipped with tanks and armored vehicles, so the most efficient way to transport their equipment is by sea. Moving one heavy brigade combat team from Germany to locations in Africa or the Caspian region would take between 20 days and a month, and transporting an entire division's equipment would take another four days in all cases, only about five days faster than moving the same types of units from the United States. Those lengthy deployment times have raised questions about the utility of the Army forces now based in Germany. Another issue concerning those forces is the cost of keeping them in Europe rather than at bases in the continental United States. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates that it costs about $1 billion more per year to maintain about 56,000 Army forces in Germany than if those troops were stationed in the United States–both because running bases and providing family housing and schools is more expensive in Germany than in the United States and because the Army must pay for overseas allowances and moves to and from assignments in Europe. If those forces are not needed to respond to any likely future conflict in the immediate region, observers might ask, why should the United States spend $1 billion each year to keep them there? Army Forces in South Korea Concerns about the 28,000 Army forces stationed in South Korea differ from those associated with Army forces based in Europe. Very few defense analysts question the need to keep substantial U. S. forces based in South Korea to deter North Korea from invading or attacking its southern neighbor. Instead, their concerns relate to four main issues: the condition and location of U. S. bases in South Korea, the instability in Army units that results partly from supporting large numbers of one year tours in South Korea, the quality of life of soldiers assigned to those tours, and whether Army units based in South Korea should be made more available to respond to conflicts elsewhere in the region. Problems with Bases in South Korea The condition and location of the Army's installations in South Korea are less than desirable. According to U. S. ilitary officials in that country, many of the Army's bases are obsolete, poorly maintained, and in disrepair, including some Quonset huts from the Korean War era that still house soldiers. Most lack the amenities found at other U. S. bases overseas, and soldiers assigned to them are authorized to receive hardship duty pay of $150 per month. In addition, Army bases in South Korea are relatively small, spread out, and vulnerable. Units of the 2nd ID are scattered among 17 installations located north of the capital, Seoul, and within 30 miles of the North Korean border. That area is well within range of North Korean artillery placed along the demilitarized zone (DMZ) that runs between the two countries. Should North Korea attack South Korea, U. S. forces at those bases would be vulnerable to barrages from large numbers of artillery tubes. Secretary of Defense Donald Gates has argued that removing U. S. soldiers from such an immediate threat would give them an advantage in surviving and responding to an attack. Another issue about U. S. bases in South Korea that has been raised recently concerns the large U. S. resence in the center of Seoul known as the Yongsan Garrison. That 640 acre installation was on the outskirts of the city when it was built, but it is now in downtown Seoul, occupying valuable real estate and causing tensions with the local populace. Instability in Army Units The need to support forces stationed in South Korea causes turbulence in Army units based in the continental United States (CONUS). Because duty in South Korea is conside red hazardous and bases there are poorly equipped, family members do not accompany 80 percent of the soldiers serving tours in South Korea. Unaccompanied tours are limited to one year to minimize family separation, which means that almost the entire population of Army personnel in South Korea turns over every year. That turnover has a ripple effect on Army units based in CONUS, which must provide soldiers to replace those leaving South Korea and integrate new personnel. CBO estimates that, on average, war fighting units in CONUS experience turnover of 37 percent of their enlisted personnel every year, as soldiers leave for tours outside the continental United States, take administrative assignments in places such as the Pentagon, or leave the Army altogether. Some Army officials have asserted that high turnover in Army units reduces their cohesion and war fighting capability. The need to replace virtually all of the enlisted personnel in South Korea each year contributes about 6 percentage points of the total 37 percent turnover in CONUS war fighting units, CBO estimates. Quality of Life in South Korea Maintaining Army forces in South Korea on unaccompanied tours adversely affects the quality of soldiers' lives by contributing to family separation. An enlisted soldier spending 10 years in the Army could, on average, expect to spend a total of . years on unaccompanied tours, according to CBO's calculations. Although that is a small percentage overall, some specialties and junior enlisted personnel are more heavily represented in South Korea than in the Army as a whole, so their numbers could be much higher. Serving on unaccompanied tours has been shown to decrease the likelihood that a soldier will reenlist, which means that maintaining fo rces in South Korea under current basing arrangements may have an adverse effect on retention. Availability of Army Units in South Korea Because the Army forces based in South Korea are generally viewed as a deterrent to hostile behavior by North Korea, the 2nd ID and its two brigades have been considered unavailable to participate in any operations outside the Korean Peninsula. (By contrast, Army units based in Germany have been used in operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq. ) The unavailability of the 2nd ID results partly because the division is based far from transportation hubs and partly because its units, which include many bulky and heavy vehicles, are not easy to deploy elsewhere. Secretary Gates recently raised the possibility of realigning the Army's forces in South Korea to make them more suitable for use in regional contingencies throughout Asia. He proposed making those forces more mobile by replacing their heavy armored vehicles with lighter and more modern vehicles and by moving them closer to transportation hubs south of Seoul. As we consider the world’s current economic state, what are we to do with such a large institution? 1. | Most of the roughly 15,000 soldiers assigned to units in South Korea other than the 2nd ID also rotate through their units on one-year unaccompanied tours. However, approximately 10 percent of them are on accompanied tours, in which the Army pays to move soldiers' families to South Korea and provides facilities for dependents while the soldiers are on assignment there. Those tours typically last for two or three years. | 2. | Not all of the soldiers assigned to a division would deploy with it. On average, 4 percent of Army personnel are ineligible to deploy overseas at any given time for various reasons, such as pregnancy, other health concerns, and family emergencies. Additional soldiers–as many as 35 percent in peacetime–may be ineligible because of Army personnel policies designed to ensure soldiers' quality of life. For a discussion of Army deployment rates in peacetime, see Bruce R. Orvis, Deployability in Peacetime, DB-351-A (Santa Monica, Calif. : RAND, 2002). | 3. | Some attrition, necessitating individual replacements, will inevitably occur over a deployment of six to 12 months. | 4. | For example, the United States has provided a small force to support the peacekeeping efforts of the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) in the Sinai Peninsula since 1982. Battalion-sized units of about 1,000 soldiers deploy for six-month assignments with the MFO. Similarly, units have been supporting operations in Bosnia and Kosovo on six-month deployments since 1996 and 1999, respectively. All told, the Army maintained an average of about 15,000 soldiers on operational deployments from 1997 through early 2001. | 5. | The third brigade of each of those divisions is based at Fort Riley, Kansas. Although the 1st Armored and 1st Infantry Divisions each have about 16,000 personnel assigned to them, when taking part in an operation they would typically be accompanied by several support units, which might include total of about 24,000 personnel. As a consequence, a division and its accompanying support units–known as a division slice–would include a total of about 40,000 personnel. | 6. | That and other replacement values cited in this study are based on data from Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Insta llations and Environment, Department of Defense Base Structure Report: Fiscal Year 2003 Baseline (June 2003), available at www. defenselink. mil/news/Jun2003/basestructure2003. pdf. That publication lists the replacement values of current U. S. defense facilities, including excess facilities that the United States still owns. | 7. | The Navy and Marine Corps have additional personnel based on board ships that may be anchored in European waters. | 8. | For example, two South Korean girls were killed in 2003 when they were struck by an Army armored vehicle during training exercises. | 9. | Stephen Daggett, Defense Budget: Alternative Measures of Costs of Military Commitments Abroad, CRS Report for Congress 95-726F (Congressional Research Service, June 16, 1995). | 10. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps units can take a considerable amount of time to establish efficient operations in remote locations. Nevertheless, in some cases, they can provide a more rapid initial response than can Army forces that do not have staging bases near a conflict. | 11. | John T. Correll, â€Å"European Command Looks South and East,†Air Force Magazine, December 2003. | 12. | Ibid. | 13. | Vince Crawley, â€Å"Oil May Drive Troop Staging ,†Army Times, September 22, 2003, p. 30. | 14. | The reason is that U. S. transport aircraft (C-17s) can carry only one M1 tank at a time. Moving an entire heavy division would require about 1,500 C-17 flights, and moving one brigade combat team from the division would take up to 500 flights. Since the U. S. military is projected to have only about 140 C-17s by 2005, transporting heavy divisions and brigades by air is not practical. | 15. | Those numbers are explained in detail in Chapter 3. | 16. | General Accounting Office, Defense Infrastructure: Basing Uncertainties Necessitate Reevaluation of U. S. Construction Plans in South Korea, GAO-03-643 (July 2003), p. 5. | 17. | See David J. Lynch, â€Å"DMZ Is a Reminder of Status in Korean Crisis,†USA Today, December 23, 2003, p. 11; and Thom Shanker, â€Å"Gates Reassures Seoul on Regrouping G. I. s,†New York Times, November 18, 2003, p. A10. | 18. | Although most personnel sent to South Korea each year come from CONUS-based units (because the Army generally tries not to assign soldiers to back-to-back tours outside the continental United States), some are drawn from the pool of new recruits completing their training. | 19. | Personnel assignments and career tracks vary greatly between enlisted personnel and officers in the Army. This analysis focuses on the enlisted force because it represents the vast majority of Army personnel–approximately 400,000 out of the Army's total strength of about 480,000. | 20. | CBO used a model of personnel turnover in its analysis that is based on a model developed by RAND. In its analysis, RAND estimated similar rates for both total annual enlisted turnover and the contribution from the need to support tours in South Korea. See W. Michael Hix and others, Personnel Turbulence: The Policy Determinants of Permanent Change of Station Moves, MR-938-A (Santa Monica, Calif. RAND, 1998). | 21. | See General Accounting Office, Military Personnel: Longer Time Between Moves Related to Higher Satisfaction and Retention, GAO-01-841 (August 2001). | 22. | Robert Marquand, â€Å"U. S. Redeployments Afoot in Asia,†Christian Science Monitor, November 18, 2003. | http://www. eagleworldnews. com/2011/01/07/pentagon-plans-to-downsize-army-in-coming-years/ http://www. pacom. mil/we b/site_pages/uspacom/facts. shtml http://www. globalsecurity. org/military/ops/korea-orbat. htm http://www. stripes. om/news/pacific/korea/u-s-army-in-south-korea-begins-transformation-of-forces-1. 115890 Table 2-1. U. S. Bases and Forces Stationed in Europe and Asia | Forward-Based Personnel (Thousands) | Installations | | Combat| Support and Administration| Total| Total Number| Number with Replacement Value of More Than $1 Billion| Total Replacement Value (Billions of dollars)a| | Europe| Army|  | | Belgium| 0|  | 1|  | 1|  | 10|  | 0|  | 1|  |  | Germany| 25|  | 31|  | 56|  | 255|  | 3|  | 30|  |  | Italy| 1|  | 1|  | 2|  | 16|  | 0|  | 1|  |  | Other| 0|  | 1| 1|  | 13|  | 0|  | 1|  |  |  | Subtotal| 26|  | 34|  | 60|  | 294|  | 3|  | 33|  |  | Air Force| 14|  | 20|  | 34|  | 201|  | 5|  | 22|  | Navyb| 0|  | 10|  | 10|  | 15|  | 2|  | 7| à ‚ | Marine Corpsb| 0|  | 1|  | 1|  | 0|  | 0|  | 0|  |  | |  |  | Total | 40|  | 65|  | 105|  | 510|  | 10|  | 62|  |  | East Asia and the Pacificc| | Army|  | | Japan| 0|  | 2|  | 2|  | 15|  | 0|  | 3|  |  | South Korea| 13|  | 15|  | 28|  | 80|  | 2|  | 8|  |  |  | Subtotal| 13|  | 17|  | 30|  | 95|  | 2|  | 11|  |  | Air Force| 14|  | 10|  | 23|  | 67|  | 5|  | 18|  | Navyb| 0|  | 6|  | 6|  | 16|  | 6|  | 9|  | Marine Corpsb| 10|  | 10|  | 20|  | 2|  | 2|  | 6|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | Total| 37|  | 43|  | 79|  | 180|  | 15|  | 44|  | Source: Congressional Budget Office based on data from Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Installations and Environment, Department of Defense Base Structure Report: Fiscal Year 2003 Baseline (June 2003), available at www. efenselink. mil/news/Jun2003/basestructure2003. pdf; Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate of Information Operations and Reports, Department of Defense Active-Duty Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country (309A) (September 30, 2002); and other Defense Department data. Note: More-detailed breakdowns for the Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps appear in Tables A-1 and A-2 in Appendix A. a. Includes the replacement value of excess facilities that the United States still owns.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Parenting Styles and Discipline
Parenting Styles and Discipline There are three parenting styles and who you are as a parent has a lot to do with the way your child responds to you. The authoritarian parent values obedience. The rules are clear but inflexible. Misbehavior is strictly punished. In this type of environment, it is common for children to feel fearful and for parents to use fear as a teaching strategy. The authoritarian parent teaches the child what to think as opposed to how to think since the parent makes all decisions for the child. This parent uses reward and punishment to control the child’s behavior.An authoritarian style can have unintended side effects. When parents rigidly discipline, children can become rigid, obsessive and people-pleasing. They may experience shame and guilt. An authoritarian style doesn’t teach children healthy ways for managing emotions; the focus is on accepting authority rather than learning how to make choices and distinguish right and wrong. A permissive p arent allows children to learn the consequences of their actions for themselves, without providing guidance. There are no clear limits and misbehavior is often ignored.Unlike the authoritarian parent, the permissive parent offers little structure and few boundaries. Children have total freedom to act however they want. Often the parent is a slave to the child. While a permissive style of parenting may seem to support children’s creativity and provide a sense of being fully accepted, it lacks the structure they need to feel safe. Without limits, children can feel confused and insecure. It also robs the child of selfrespect and self-esteem by doing things for the child that the child can do for himself. It is an invitation for rebellion with inconsistent parenting.As with an authoritarian style, permissiveness doesn’t teach children how to handle their emotions in a healthy way. It also doesn’t support them in developing an internal moral compass. Having free lice nse to choose behavior without considering rules or the impact on other people sets children up for failure in their relationships and at school and work. In 1971 Diana Baumrind used the classifications of â€Å"Neglectful†and â€Å"Indulgent†parenting, instead of permissive, in Development Psychology Monographs. An authoritative parent is kind, but firm. Authoritative parents are respectful towards their children, and model this behavior.They set and enforce limits, clarify issues and give reasons for limits. They provide children with practice in making choices and guide them to see the consequences of their choices. They teach their children how to solve problems, even providing them with decision-making opportunities. These are essential skills in adulthood. Self-esteem flourishes as children learn to rely on their own abilities to determine right from wrong and to act accordingly. Parenting discipline has become a hugely debated subject. Discipline is often take n as a bad thing, however, discipline does not have to be automatically considered a punishment.Discipline by definition means; â€Å"Training expected to produce a specific character or pattern of behavior, especially training that produces moral or mental improvement. †Psychologist Dr. Leman spoke of â€Å"reality disciplinarians†that â€Å"try to be consistent, decisive, and respectful of their children as persons. †While holding their children accountable for their actions, they encourage their children to learn. The parent should communicate to their children that they love them even though they don’t always love their behavior by choosing their words wisely. There are unfortunately many cases where parenting discipline is overdone.Some of this wrong discipline is done with very good intentions, all the while thinking that it will make your child a better person. However, there is a very thin line between constructive and destructive parenting dis cipline. Hitting or screaming at a child in the name of discipline is never a good thing. Children are very sensitive and such discipline can mark and scar them forever with very dire consequences. Parenting discipline is more teaching, showing a child the right way to do something, not just imposing or forcefully making him perform some duty given by you.No matter how good the intention the method of discipline is extremely important. Parenting discipline is a delicate matter to be approached very carefully. Do not make the mistake to presume that if something worked for you it will be the same for your child or even if it worked on for one child the same will work for another. Find the right way to discipline your child so he will happily learn and apply the discipline taught by you. I find that parenting how one sees best is the right that comes with that of being a parent. It doesn’t do well to criticize someone else’s parenting style as inferior.Of course poor par enting may come back to cause harm to the child and even parents and society. Really each parent should strive to raise children with good attitude, behavior, and character by appropriate parenting and discipline. Works Cited â€Å"Definition of Discipline. †Discipline. http://education. yahoo. com/reference/dictionary/entry/discipline. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Leman, Kevin. Making Children Mind without Losing Yours. Grand Rapids, MI: F. H. Revell, 2000. Print. Santrock, John W. Child Development – Thirteenth Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.
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